That Reptile Blog Has Moved!

In an effort to provide more content and features to our readers, That Reptile Blog, along with That Fish Place/That Pet Place's other blogs: That Fish Blog & That Avian Blog, have been moved to their own server. Please reset all bookmarks to our new location and keep an eye out for new and improved blog features in the near future. All currently unanswered comments will be answered here, though new comments should now be posted to the new location.

That Reptile Blog is now located at: http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatreptileblog

That Avian Blog is now located at: http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatavianblog

That Fish Blog is now located at: http://blogs.thatpetplace.com/thatfishblog


Thanks, and see you there!

Frank

The Spotted Salamander, Ambystoma maculatum – Part II, Natural History

To read the first part of this article, click here.

Natural Diet
Adults consume a wide variety of prey – earthworms, millipedes, crickets, sow bugs, spiders, centipedes, termites and other invertebrates as well as smaller salamanders. The larvae prey upon zooplankton, dragonfly larvae and other aquatic insects, fairy shrimp, tadpoles, red-spotted newt larvae and each other.

Spotted salamanders produce toxic skin secretions but are none-the-less consumed by garter snakes and hog-nosed snakes. Introduced trout, bass, goldfish and other fishes prey upon the larvae and can decimate a population in a single season.

Reproduction
Adults migrate from terrestrial burrows to temporary ponds (vernal pools, swamps, ditches, sluggish streams) in the early spring. The migration is triggered by snow-melt or warm rains, with adults sometimes crossing snow to reach their breeding sites. Males arrive at the ponds 1-6 days before females. I have observed them breeding in Westchester County, NY in mid March, when the water is quite cold. Despite this, I found that food for the larvae, in the form of aquatic insects and fairy shrimp, was abundant.

Large mixed-sex groups form at the pond bottom during courtship. Males deposit a spermatophore (a sperm-filled, jelly-coated capsule) on the pond bottom. The females take this into their cloaca (reproductive opening) and fertilization occurs internally.

The eggs are laid in compact, jelly-covered masses that are attached to twigs, plants or sunken logs. Each mass contains 50-160 eggs. The sight of 20 or more large, brilliantly marked salamanders writhing together in as they vie for breeding rights is really something to see – please write in if you’d like information as to how you might observe this for yourself.

A species of green algae, Oophila amblystomatis, frequently colonizes the egg mass, apparently supplying oxygen to the embryos and utilizing the carbon dioxide that they produce. Larvae from algae-colonized egg masses hatch earlier and exhibit less mortality than do those from algae-free masses.

The adults return to their burrows after breeding. The terrestrial habitat may be 75 – 1,000 feet from the breeding pond.

The larvae hatch in 8-60 days, depending upon water temperature, and have external gills. Transformation to the adult form takes place over a period ranging from 6 weeks to 18 months. In NY, the larvae typically leave the breeding ponds by late July or August, after which the ponds usually dry up.

Miscellaneous
Adult spotted salamanders have lungs but rely largely upon cutaneous respiration (the absorption of oxygen through the skin). The skin must remain moist if this form of respiration is to be effective - they are therefore, limited to damp habitats and rarely appear above ground except after heavy rains. They and other salamanders depend upon protective tree cover, leaf litter and fallen logs to retain soil moisture, and rapidly disappear from degraded habitats.

Onto captive care next time. Until then, please write in with your observations and questions. I’m particularly interested in how this species is doing in the wild, and would greatly appreciate repots of sightings. Thanks, Frank.

You can read more about spotted salamander natural history and conservation at:
http://www.globalamphibians.org/servlet/GAA?sourceTemplate=Ltabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=Ldetail_report.wmt&selectedReport=&summaryView=Ltabular_report.wmt&elKey=13224&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=13224&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&selectedIndexes=13224
Of course, you can also order my salamander book from That Pet Place (see above) – Thanks!

The Spotted Salamander, Ambystoma maculatum – Part I, Natural History

Overview
Salamanders are not given nearly the attention they deserve by amphibian enthusiasts and, consequently, we know far less about their habits and care than we do of their more familiar relatives, the frogs. Many species, however, do very well in captivity and make long-lived (to over 50 years!) and responsive pets. A number are brilliantly colored, and all exhibit complex social behaviors and other traits that are easily observed in a properly designed captive habitat. I hope you will check out my book, Newts and Salamanders if you find these creatures as interesting as do I.

In contrast to frogs, salamanders reach their greatest diversity in temperate habitats – more species are found in the eastern USA than anywhere else on earth. Today I would like to take a look at the natural history of the spotted salamander - a large, local beauty that makes both an excellent “first salamander” and a fine addition to advanced collections. Next week I’ll cover their care in captivity.

Physical Description
Varies in length from 4 ¾ to 9 ¾ inches. Stoutly built, with a black or slate- colored body marked by irregular rows of brilliant yellow (occasionally orange) spots. Larvae are usually a uniform olive or brown in color with bushy red external gills.

Range and Habitat
Eastern and central North America – from Nova Scotia and central Ontario, Canada south to Georgia and west to eastern Iowa and eastern Texas. They are absent from southern NJ and the Delmarva Peninsula. Isolated populations are still to be found within NYC, on Staten Island and in Queens and the north Bronx.

Spotted salamanders favor deciduous lowland forests and meadows near forest edges and sometimes inhabit woodland patches within suburban areas. Adults require soil into which they can burrow and the fish-less bodies of water for breeding (the larvae are relatively defenseless against fish). Certain populations breed where fishes are present, but only if dense aquatic plant cover is available.

Spotted salamanders are members of the family Ambystomatidae – the mole salamanders. True to this name, the terrestrial adults spend most of their lives below logs or underground in self-excavated burrows or in those dug by mammals such as moles, shrews and field mice. They have been found at depths of 4 feet below ground, and generally forage on the surface only on damp or rainy nights. Spotted salamanders are sensitive to soil pH and avoid acidic soil.

Status in the Wild
Common in some parts of the range and drastically declining in others due to habitat loss - the removal of trees causes the soil to dry, and results in loss of the protective leaf-litter cover needed by this species. The introduction of trout and other game fish to breeding ponds quickly causes local extinctions.

Spotted salamanders typically breed in vernal (temporary) ponds, which are often small in size and only a few inches deep (these lack fish – see above). Unfortunately, such “puddles” are rarely recognized as worthy of protection, and hence are destroyed at a greater rate than are other habitats.

They are also threatened by acid rain and road-salting, both of which change soil and breeding pond pH, killing the larvae and driving off the adults. Protected by several states but not nationally, and not listed by CITES.

Check back on Friday for conclusion of this article.

Canned Insects and other Invertebrates - An Important New Food for Pet Reptiles and Amphibians

I have long stressed the importance of dietary variety to the health of captive reptiles and amphibians. Most consume anywhere from dozens to hundreds of prey species in the wild, yet are typically fed only crickets, mealworms and a few others in captivity. Collecting insects (Zoo Med’s Bug Napper is a very effective tool) and culturing alternative species such as sow bugs is one option, but few of us find the time to do this regularly.

So it was with great interest that I began experimenting with the whole, canned invertebrates that have recently become available. Animals that normally consume non-living foods, such as box, musk, snapping, painted and spotted turtles, sharp-ribbed and fire-bellied newts and African clawed frogs, eagerly took most foods offered. I was also able to tong-feed the insects to several species of “live food only” amphibians, including horned frogs, green frogs, leopard frogs (see photo), American bullfrogs (see photo, albino frogs pictured here), gray treefrogs, barking treefrogs, spotted salamanders and fire salamanders (see picture.)

I’m very eager to try these products on several small, insectivorous snake species which do not thrive unless supplied with caterpillars, slugs, and grasshoppers. First among these would be North America’s gorgeous smooth and rough green snakes, Opheodrys vernalis and O. aestivus, followed by the ring-necked and red-bellied snakes, Diadophis punctatus and Storeria occipitomaculata (these last 2 favor slugs, for which snails might be a good substitute).

I was especially happy to see that snails were being offered by several companies. Since childhood, I have longed to successfully keep the striking Malayan snail-eating turtle, Malayemys subtrijuga. I have had moderate success in zoos, but only when large breeding colonies of apple snails were available to feed these beautiful food specialists. Supplying enough food is difficult for hobbyists and most zoological parks, and hence this turtle is rarely bred or even kept in captivity, despite being extremely rare in the wild and in need of our help. I look forward to trying again, using canned snails, supplemented with live ones, as a basis of the diet.

I have also written about the use of canned insects in bird diets – please see my article, Feeding Insects to Pet Birds.

I have tried most of the following, and recommend you to experiment as much as possible:

Exo Terra – grasshoppers, silkworms, snails
Zoo Med – grasshoppers, caterpillars, snails
Jurrasidiet – Snails, grasshoppers

I believe these products to be the start of some interesting and important developments in the field of reptile and amphibian nutrition, and plan further research. Please help me in my work by writing in about your own trials and results. I will be sure to write back and inform you of my efforts as well. Thanks, until next time, Frank.

A Close Call with a King Cobra, Ophiophagus hannah

Note: Please see my article on king cobra natural history for further information about this fascinating snake.

It is often difficult to determine what a snake will do in a particular situation, as their external cues are quite subtle. A great deal is going on behind those unblinking eyes, I can assure you, but most species give us little to go on. Not so, however, with the cobras – active, alert and intelligent, their behaviors are much more evident to us.

Among professional herpetologists, the king cobra has the reputation of having all the aforementioned cobra qualities in excess. This, combined with a length of up to 18 feet (it is the longest of the venomous snakes) renders the king cobra among the world’s most formidable animals.

Those I worked with at the Bronx and Staten Island Zoos invariably watched and reacted to each of my movements instantly, in almost “mammalian” fashion. The doors to snake exhibits are equipped with metal panes that can be slid open to reveal a small window, thus allowing the keeper a look inside. Nearly always, king cobras respond to the pane’s movement immediately by rearing up and peering back through the window – quite unnerving the first time it happens to one! No other snake has responded in this way in all my many years of working in zoos.

So it was with some trepidation that I responded to a call from an airport official who claimed that a “giant” cobra (escaped snakes are always “giants”!) had escaped from its shipping crate (I have agreed not to reveal the identity of the airport). Fortunately, the animal was contained with a small, relatively bare room. Armed with a pair of tongs and a garbage can lid, I entered, thoughts of Frank Buck’s similar story, related in his classic book "Bring ‘Em Back Alive," bouncing about in my mind.

The snake, about 9 feet long, reared up in typical cobra fashion and, its head at my waist level, advanced. I have been in my share of tussles with wild animals, but the phrase “Discretion is the better part of valor” never rang truer. I backed out and asked for a secure box with a hole cut in one side. I pushed this into the room and, as I had hoped, the cobra darted inside – for once the species’ alertness working in my favor. The lack of cover in the room had strengthened its will to fight – provided with a way out, the snake retreated. I was able to secure it without incident.

A group of NYC police officers had gathered outside the room. The younger ones were quite disappointed that I had not leapt upon the snake and subdued it with a grasp to the neck. The oldest officer, the sergeant in charge, simply said “Thanks for sparing me a wild ride to the hospital and a ton of paperwork”!

One of my fondest “reptilian” memories is of snake hunting with famed herpetologist Romulus Whitaker. You can read about his field work with king cobras at:
http://www.the-south-asian.com/Oct2000/King_Cobra1.htm
Snake escape stories are always welcomed – please share your own. Thanks, until next time, Frank.

Handling Snapping Turtles, Chelydra serpentina, and Other Large Turtles

Snapping turtles bite viciously in self defense and when striking at food – in fact, the species’ name, “serpentina”, refers to the long neck and lightening-fast strike.

I have worked with a number of quite calm captives that showed no propensity for biting, but all are capable, and feeding accidents are always a possibility. Never put your hands in the vicinity of a snapper’s head, even for a moment - believe me, you will not be able to avoid the strike! The injuries resulting from a bite can be severe or even disabling. This is a species to observe, not handle.

Nesting female snapping turtles are sometimes encountered on roads. When helping in this situation, use the technique described below, and always move the animal in its intended direction of travel.

Small turtles can be lifted by grasping the rear of the carapace (upper shell). Larger animals will use their powerful rear legs to dislodge your hands if you attempt to do this. Be aware also that the long neck can reach almost to the very rear of the carapace (upper shell).

To lift a large snapper, approach it from the rear and slide your hand along the carapace until you reach the edge, just above the head. This looks dangerous, and the turtle’s head will be pressed against your fingers, but it will not be able to bite you. Support the rear of the turtle with your other hand. Do not lift snappers by their tails, as is often done – this will cause severe injuries to the spine and internal organs. The accompanying photo shows me grasping a large alligator snapping turtle in a safe manner. Prior to lifting the turtle (quite a chore as this old fellow weighs 206 pounds!) I will slide my hand over a bit so as to center it directly above the head.

I have used this method to move scores of large, aggressive turtles of many species – alligator snappers, Malaysian river turtles (Batagur baska), Nile soft-shelled turtles and others. Soft-shelled turtles do not offer much in the way of space at the edge of the carapace – practice with other species is required before tackling one of these ill-tempered fellows.

Please forward your own thoughts and experiences. Thanks, until next time, Frank.

The King Cobra or Hamadryad, Ophiophagus hannah – natural history and zoological park husbandry - Part 2

To read the first part of this article, click here.

Field Research on Nesting King Cobras
Famed herpetologist Romulus Whitaker took on the “quite invigorating” as he put it, task of disturbing nesting king cobras to determine just how far their protective instincts extended. He was early on in the research when last we spoke, but found that most retreated after an extended threat display – I imagine that the display of an angry king cobra serves well-enough to dissuade adversaries less-determined than the unshakable Mr. Whitaker!

Captive Breeding – my experience
The king cobra’s taste for other snakes complicates breeding efforts in zoos. During my years as a zoo keeper I experienced several successes and failures. I once housed a pair in adjoining exhibits, separated by a screen panel, for 3 months in order to gauge their reactions to each other. They seemed to get along well and, indeed, co-habited peacefully for several weeks. Always well fed, there were no signs of aggression. Unfortunately, however, there was also no sign of the female one morning – the 12 foot long male had swallowed all 8 feet of her – quite a feat even for a snake!

Working With King Cobras
Although rumored to be aggressive in nature, king cobras often (but not always!) flee when confronted by humans if given the opportunity. Captives are, however, extremely alert and seem, at least upon casual observation, to evince learning abilities not possessed by other snakes. I have always preferred to house them in exhibits equipped with shift cages, into which the snake may be secured before I entered the exhibit – they are just too fast to work with close at hand (my predecessors at the Bronx Zoo seemed to feel likewise – in an old storage area I came across an old wooden “cobra shield” - I like to think it may have been used by the eminent Raymond Ditmars, first reptile curator at the Bronx Zoo). When shifts are not available, I exercise extreme caution and, as with all venomous snakes, alert co-workers of my whereabouts.

King cobras are notorious escape artists, even for snakes, and the cause of much lost sleep in the zoo world. Some years ago a major zoo was closed down for 3 days while an escaped specimen was at large (it was, luckily, re-captured without incident). I’ll relate my own experience with 3 escaped spitting cobras in a future article.

Cobra Classification and Venom
King cobras and the 300 or so other members of the family Elapidae are known as “Proteroglyphous Snakes” – a term referring to the fact that their hollow, venom conducting teeth (fangs) are fixed in position and cannot be erected as can those of the vipers and their relatives (the Solenoglyphus Snakes).

Cobras inject venom by biting and employing a chewing motion, and cannot utilize the stab and release action of the vipers. The venom of most species is highly effective, and large specimens can deliver huge quantities of venom in a single bite. It is often said that an adult king cobra may carry enough venom to “kill a small elephant” – while that is difficult to quantify, a cobra of any species is a most dangerous animal.

Other Cobras and Their Relatives
Elapids reach their greatest diversity in Australia, dominating the snake fauna there. There are over 50 species in the Americas, with coral snakes being the only representatives found in the USA. Arboreal, aquatic and burrowing forms occur in Africa and Asia. Several African cobras can eject venom at the eyes of enemies (they hunt in usual cobra fashion), an adaptation to life in grasslands populated by large hoofed mammals. Sea snakes, kraits and mambas are related to cobras and also classified as Elapids.

The Cobras’ Hood
The defensive display of cobras involves rearing up and flaring out a wide hood of skin about the head and upper body. This is accomplished by raising a series of elongated ribs, which in turn stretch the skin between them to form the hood. A large king cobra may raise over 4 feet of its body from the ground when agitated – a most impressive (and convincing!) display.

Information concerning king cobras in India is posted at:
http://www.india-wildlife-tours.com/wild-animals-in-india/indian-wildlife-king-cobra.html
I am interested to hear about your observations of cobras in the wild or zoos…please write in with these or any questions you may have. Thanks, until next time, Frank